11.2 Reciprocity

It’s important to keep symbiotic relationships fair. This is especially true for mutualism, since the breakdown of exchange can result in a severe imbalance of resources or treatment of others. Yet, our tolerance of unfairness varies based upon the closeness of our relationship to others. This is based largely on the concept of reciprocity – and our ability to expect favors to be returned.

Generalized Reciprocity

Generalized reciprocity involves exchange among closely related individuals with little to no expectation of return. For example, a parent cares for their children, let’s say by going to work to pay bills and keep food in the home. Of course, that parent does not expect their five year old to get a job and do the same. This would be viewed as generalized reciprocity since the child may never return the support, yet the parent continues to invest anyway.

We do see forms of generalized reciprocity occur across nonrelated individuals, but there is usually some other deep bond or attachment present. For example, humans are keeping companion animals in the home with increasing frequency and across cultures. Though there is obviously no genetic relatedness, the investment and attachment in these relationships are looking more like the parent-child bond. As expected, we are also seeing an increase in generalized reciprocity as pet parents care for their dogs, cats, and other companions with no expectation that these animals will go to work and “pay their share.”

Balanced Reciprocity

Balanced reciprocity looks more like an exchange of favors or payment of goods. In balanced reciprocity, items or behaviors of equal value are exchanged – usually within small timeframes. For example, when you pay for a latté, you are engaging in balanced reciprocity with the barista. If you feel the service or quality of the drink warrants a higher value than originally paid, you may even leave a tip.

Positive Reciprocity

Positive reciprocity expands upon balanced reciprocity by adding a reward for a stranger when the exchange is, otherwise, equally beneficial. Let’s say you are out to dinner with friends. Balanced reciprocity states that the host sat you at your table, the chef cooked your meal, and the wait staff delivered your meal in a timely manner. As a result, you pay the bill.

However, it is also common practice to tip the wait staff for their service. Many people will leave a standard amount – say 10%. Yet, what if the specific wait staff who served you was very friendly, provided great recommendations, and generally made your night more enjoyable? And what if you wanted to be sure they felt this extra effort was valued? You may choose to leave a larger tip – maybe 15-20%. This is positive reciprocity. What might be an equal exchange of services and goods becomes a rewarding experience for one party – technically at the expense of the other.

Negative Reciprocity

Negative reciprocity expands on balanced reciprocity, too, but in a different direction. While positive reciprocity is the “addition” of a reward, negative reciprocity is the removal, or “subtraction,” of something. This likely happens via some sort of hostile exchange, and usually occurs between strangers. For example, in the United States criminal justice system, an alleged criminal goes to trial and is judged by a jury of their peers. Yet, these individuals do not know the alleged criminal – they are simply members of the same, general social group.

After listening to the debate between prosecutors and defense, the jury may find the individual guilty. They now become a criminal in need of punishment. Once the jury shares this decision with the judge overseeing the trial, the judge must determine an appropriate sentence. That is, an exchange of something lost that is of equal value to the crime. Therefore, negative reciprocity occurs when the criminal loses their freedom for a certain number of years to “pay” for their crime.

Delayed Reciprocity

The tricky thing about reciprocity of any kind – it can be delayed. When exchanging favors with a friend, you may not expect them to pay you back immediately. For example, perhaps you paid for their latté this time, because you know they will buy when you meet again. The dinner out with your friends does not happen in a short time; rather, meals often extend for an hour or more. Yet, the knowledge is there that reciprocity will occur.

Delayed reciprocity, particularly for balanced or positive exchanges, often looks like altruism on the surface. At first, there appears to be a cost to the actor that benefits the receiver, above what Hamilton’s Rule would predict. However, there may be hidden benefits, like the boost to one’s reputation for helping or an internal moment of “feeling good.” And if one can reliably count on the returned favor in the future, it is less a matter of altruism than it is a matter of delayed exchange.